Monism and the Sufi Tradition
History has demonstrated great parallels between religions regarding what is normally considered their outer, or exoteric doctrine, and that aspect which is considered the inner, esoteric path. For Judaism we have the esoteric doctrine of Kabbalah, while Christianity offers its own inner occult mystical tradition. Islam, too, contains a similar esoteric tradition - Sufism - and it has had the reputation of producing some of the most celebrated masters in esotericism. Like its sibling mystical traditions, Sufism has suffered condemnation from its orthodox parent and has served as a point of contention to those who have adopted the mainstream views of Islam. One wonders what mysteries arise from within Sufism to create such an apparent and distinct threat to the monotheistic foundations of Islamic orthodoxy? The former Spalding Professor of Eastern Religions and Ethics at the University of Oxford, R. C. Zaehner, explains that "in Sufism the tendency is from theism, that is, a mysticism of love, towards what amounts to monism in that, in the states called fana ('annihilation')[1] and infirad ('isolation'), it is claimed that there is no consciousness of anything but God, man thereby realizing himself as God."[2] One can certainly see the initial polarization that might occur between Sufism's 'God immanent' and Islam's monotheistic view of 'God transcendent.' However, Sufism, as a whole, does not adopt this view lightly and the "claims that at the height of his mystical experience man actually is God, is frequently challenged by the Sufis themselves."[3] Within its own circle Sufism has not had to provide proof for its claims. Conviction is based upon direct experience. Outside this circle, however, these claims are heretical where no empirical or scientific evidence can be found or offered to substantiate them. For this reason, Sufi practitioners have been subjected to a long history of rejection, isolation, and even martyrdom. The Qur'an has been seen to be the precursor to many discoveries in classical orthodox science. Is it possible then that the subtle notions in Sufism may, likewise, parallel a subtler side of science? In this essay I will provide a general look at the doctrines of some of the great Sufi masters in order to identify the thread of monism running through them. Following this, I will provide some evidence from modern science, specifically quantum physics, which suggests that the monistic conceptions in Sufism may, in fact, find a degree of substantiation within the scientific community. From this it will be seen that the claims of Sufis throughout history cannot be dismissed so easily by the Islamic orthodoxy.
Running deep within the Sufi tradition is the notion of oneness with God. The fundamental monotheistic Islamic notion of Tawhid ("making God one") was pursued most vigorously by such early Sufi adherents as Al-Junayd (d. 910). While he maintained that there must always remain some distinction between God and His creation, nevertheless, he felt that one could unite temporarily and experience oneself within the Perfection of God. This mystical state could be achieved by incurring a complete denial of the self and the world, and this pursuit eventually led to the "development of the central Sufi doctrine of fana."[4] The insistence in Al-Junayd's 'sober' form of Sufism of maintaining a distinction between God and creation was not favorable to all Sufi practitioners. Some of Al-Junayd's contemporaries pursued an 'intoxicated' form of Sufism which exemplified a more extreme position within the tradition.
Abu Yazid al-Bistami (d.875) went so far as to acknowledge the living presence of God within himself. His most controversial proclamations, including "Glory to Me! How great is My Majesty!"[5] and "I am He,"[6] spoke to his absolute identification with God. While this vision invoked a great deal of censure, none seemed quite so disagreeable to the orthodox authorities as Al-Junayd's infamous disciple, Husayn Ibn Mansur Al-Hallaj (d. 922). Denny recounts the profound, yet tragic, events of Al-Hallaj's life and message:
His most famous utterance and the one that, because he refused to recant it, cost him his life, was ana al-Haqq, 'I am God' (literally, 'I am Truth' or 'Reality'). Another thing that caused him great trouble was his claim to have miraculous powers. Others accused him of magic. This strange mystic became the most extreme of the intoxicated Sufis, identifying absolutely with God, his beloved. . . . In 922, Hallaj was crucified in Baghdad for his blasphemy.[7]
His slow and excruciatingly painful execution was endured with absolute courage and history records that he did not plead for pardon once. In fact, his ecstatic experience of identification with God allowed him to plead for forgiveness for his captors at the outset of his execution.
One of the most famous Muslim figures in history, thought to be second only to Muhammad,[8] was Abu Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazali (1058-1111). While his teachings were certainly Sufic in their support of mystical unification with God, he retreated from the notion of complete union and maintained a clear respect for God's transcendence; a return to the notions forwarded earlier by Al-Junayd. His contribution was great, however, in his clear minded critique of the limitations of academic knowledge. It was possible, he felt, to be completely learned in all subjects yet still lacking in true insight or knowledge. Idries Shah describes Al-Ghazali's perspective in this way,
He insisted upon pointing out that those who are learned may be, and often are, stupid as well, and can be bigoted, obsessed. He affirms that, in addition to having information and being able to reproduce it, there is such a thing as knowledge, which happens to be a higher form of human thought. The habit of confusing opinion with knowledge, a habit which is to be met with every day at the current time, Ghazali regards as an epidemic disease.[9]
While Al-Ghazali retreats slightly from the full monistic notion of some earlier Sufis, he does, nevertheless, point out that the higher forms of knowledge are achieved beyond what is found in mere academic study. It is found experientially and subjectively. This encouragement towards subjective experience served to reinforce the Sufi's inner subjective search for God.
The retreat from monism by Al-Ghazali was short lived with the arrival of one of the greatest Sufi Masters, Muhyiddin Ibn Al-Arabi (1165-1240). According to Frederick Denny, Ibn Al-Arabi "brought Sufi thought to its highest point of subtlety and sophistication in his philosophy of wahdat al-wujud 'the oneness of being.'"[10] S.A.Q. Husaini notes that, in understanding the meaning of this term, the "one English word which can best represent this theory is 'monism.'"[11] However, because there can be many forms of monism, he would best associate the notions of Ibn Al-Arabi with pantheistic monism. That is, all finite things are regarded as
. . . merely aspects, modifications, or parts of one eternal and self-existing being, which views all material objects and all particular minds as necessarily derived from a single infinite substance. The one absolute substance, the one all comprehensive being is called God. Thus God, according to it, is all that is, and nothing is which is not necessarily included in or which has not been necessarily evolved out of God.[12]
This clearly reflects the idea suggested by Ibn Al-Arabi. However, his notion of wahdat al-wujud, or 'oneness of being,' is even more subtle than that. Annemarie Schimmel points out that there is no verb meaning to be in the Arabic language.[13] Instead, wujud suggests 'discovering' or 'unveiling.' Likewise, Ibn Al-Arabi taught of the need to unveil, reveal or discover the Oneness of Reality. We see this in one of the many definitive statements from Ibn Al-Arabi's work, The Fusus Al-Hikam.
For those who truly know ahl al-haqaiq, the Divine Realities, affirmation of transcendence imposes conditionality and limitation on the Real, for he who asserts that Deity is purely transcendent is either ignorant or tactless. The exorcist who stresses only Divine Transcendence (at-tanzih) slanders and misrepresents the Real and all the messengers, albeit unwittingly. He imagines that he has hit on the truth, whilst he has missed the mark, being like those who believe in part and deny part. It is known that the Scriptures express the Real as shari'a, traditional law, so that the generality of men grasp the apparent meaning. The elite, on the other hand, understand the meanings hidden in that utterance, regardless of the terms in which it is expressed. The truth is that the Real is manifest in every created being and in every concept, even whilst He is hidden from all understanding, save for one who recognizes that the Cosmos is His form and Self, and who sees the world as the Divine Name, az-zahir, the Manifest. But He is also unmanifested Spirit, al-batin, the Unmanifest. In this sense He is, in relation to the manifested forms of the Cosmos, the Ruling Spirit.[14]
For Ibn Al-Arabi, there is nothing in the universe but God. In fact, the universe, and everything in it, is God.[15] Ibn Al-Arabi is again direct in his understanding of Reality and attempts to explain how God can be both immanent and transcendent at one and the same time.
There is nothing in existence except God. . . . There is nothing except the unity of all things. There are no two things, and no distinction can be made. What is the meaning of the saying of the Prophet (may peace be on him): 'There is God and nothing with Him?' The reply is this. Thingness cannot accompany Him, nor can it be attributed to Him. He remains as He is and nothing remains with Him. To be devoid of thingness and its company is His very attribute. Yet He is with, rather in, all things; but the things are not with Him, because company is dependent on knowledge. He knows us, so He is with us. But we do not know Him, so we are not with Him.[16]
Essentially, God is transcendent in the sense that we do not know Him as the source and foundation of ourselves. It is the Sufi master, one who has penetrated the barriers to this knowledge, that finally sees that the source, foundation and identity of themselves is God. This notion is clearly explained by another well noted Sufi master and poet, Mawlana Jalal Al-Din Al-Rumi (ca. 1247-1273). Thought to be one of the greatest poets ever, Rumi composed over 25,000 couplets, in Persian, within his lifetime. The subtlety of his thinking mirrors that of Ibn Al-Arabi's and we can see this demonstrated in his discourse on Al-Hallaj's immortal phrase Ana 'l-Haqq ('I am God').
People imagine that it is a presumptuous claim, whereas it is really a presumptuous claim to say Ana 'l-'abd 'I am the slave of God'; and Ana 'l-Haqq 'I am God' is an expression of great humility. The man who says Ana 'l-'abd 'I am the slave of God' affirms two existences, his own and God's, but he that says Ana 'l-Haqq 'I am God' has made himself non-existent and has given himself up and says 'I am God', i.e. 'I am naught, He is all; there is no being but God's.' This is the extreme of humility and self-abasement.[17]
Rumi gracefully substantiates the profound sense of 'unity in the divine' expressed by many Sufi mystics before him. One is then considered to be at their greatest point of submission when in the Sufi state of total annihilation (fana). For the Sufi, to attribute any notion of actual separation between God and creation is to be in a state of illusion as well as arrogance. To set oneself up or affirm oneself as an existence, separate from God, would be to claim a form of egocentric equivalence or individuality independent of God. That is, humans would represent something in the universe that was 'additional to' the presence of God.
We can see from the above examination that Sufism has, for the most part, posited a monistic conception of the world. When taken to its ultimate understanding, there can be nothing other than God and, therefore, humans can only be a manifestation or emanation of God. Until recently, this notion was forced to stand as a result of logical reasoning or, perhaps, by pure experience alone. As such, the Sufi adherents were vulnerable to condemnation by authorities not convinced by their postulates. However, science has recently added empirical evidence which suggests that the Sufi masters may have, in fact, been correct. This does not in any way reduce the validity or claims of the Sufi's inner experience of divinity, in and of itself. It does, however, provide a perspective in which to understand the Sufi claims by those who are not predisposed to grasping that experiential vision.
Quantum physics has offered science a fresh approach to viewing the universe. While it is far from answering all the secrets in the universe, there are certainly definitive claims available regarding previously held notions of the universe. I am not a physicist and, as such, cannot describe the deeper concepts of quantum physics. However, we can rely on leading experts within the field of science to describe for us the implications of quantum physics. David Z. Albert, Professor of Philosophy at Columbia University, describes some of these new fundamentals: "What needs to be changed is the fundamental ontology of the world. What you have to do is give up the idea that the material world consists of particles."[18] From the outset, this statement throws into question any claim that we are material beings. While it does not substantiate, in itself, a monistic conception of the universe, it does, however, undermine our common experience as separate material entities. The doorway to Sufism can be seen to open and the illusion of our material identity is being wrenched from our grasped. Experiments by Alain Aspect (1982)[19] evidenced a transcendent non-material domain of reality, known as the non-local domain, through which information from one material object (i.e., an atom) could pass and affect the behavior of another material object beyond the restrictions of time and space. That is to say, this signal-less transmission of information could occur between objects instantaneously (faster than the speed of light) regardless of their position or location in space. "According to the physicist Henry Stapp, the message of quantum non-locality is that 'the fundamental process of Nature lies outside space-time but generates events that can be located in space-time.'"[20] The generation of our experience of observed events is called 'the collapse of the wave function' and this collapse is instigated or effected through consciousness. In addition to this, the real work that the quantum theory does for us is that it completely opens a new line of thought regarding the causal powers of consciousness. To put this into a better perspective we might look at a conclusion related by Dr. Nick Herbert:
In his [John von Neumann's] magisterial tome The Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Physics, regarded by many scientists as 'the bible of quantum theory,' . . . [he addressed the problem that] something new must be added to 'collapse the wave function,' something that is capable of turning fuzzy quantum possibilities into definite actualities [i.e., properties]. But since von Neumann is forced to describe the entire physical world as possibilities, the process that turns some of these maybes into actual facts cannot be a physical process . . . Searching his mind for an appropriate actually existing nonphysical entity that could collapse the wave function, von Neumann reluctantly concluded that the only known entity fit for this task was consciousness. In von Neumann's interpretation, the world remains everywhere in a state of pure possibility except where some conscious mind decides to promote a portion of the world from its usual state of indefiniteness into a condition of actual existence . . . By itself the physical world is not fully real, but takes shape only as a result of the acts of numerous centers of consciousness.[21]
This last statement is shockingly parallel to the notions put forth by Ibn Al-Arabi in his pantheistic monism. According to von Neumann, it appears as though it is consciousness alone which is fit to collapse the wave function of indiscriminate quantum field states into a material property state. [22] In fact, this may require that consciousness be a universal property, sub-atomically present in the field of each mathematical point in space, and not simply 'localized' to human brains; otherwise, the collapse of the wave function required to objectify our entire known universe would, ridiculously so, be the sole task of human minds. This idea is mirrored in an interview with Dr. Larry Dossey, former Chief of Staff of Medical City Dallas Hospital.
The non-local model [of mind] is . . . not confined in space and time to the brain and body, although it may work through the brain and body . . . Infinite, and by inference immortal, eternal, omnipresent all of these are consequences of anything that is non-local, not just mind. As a result, if mind is non-local, there is one mind, or Universal Mind, which is identical to what the West has regarded as Soul . . . The evidence is overwhelming that mind behaves in a non-local way. . . It may be hard to imagine, but physics experiments have clearly shown that non-locality is the characteristic of the world at the sub-atomic level.[23]
So far, then, we have seen that quantum physics, through empirical scientific investigation, validates a new paradigm - "that consciousness, not matter, is the ground of all being."[24] Amit Goswami, professor of physics at the Institute of Theoretical Sciences at the University of Oregon, feels that
. . . the philosophy of monistic idealism provides a paradox-free interpretation of quantum physics that is logical, coherent, and satisfying. Moreover, mental phenomena such as self consciousness, free will, creativity, even extrasensory perception find simple, satisfying explanations when the mind-body problem is reformulated in an overall context of monistic idealism and quantum theory. This reformulated picture of the mind-brain enables us to understand our whole self entirely in harmony with what the great spiritual traditions have maintained for millennia.[25]
Goswami goes on to describe how the universe consists as one whole field of consciousness, unlimited, unbroken and eternal. This same consciousness is experienced individually through the material physical vehicle we describe as the body and brain. It is this experience, however, which is the illusion and, as the Sufi masters would assert, one needs to penetrate deeply, beyond this illusory identity, to experience oneself as this underlying whole field of Oneness Consciousness. Other physicists in the field, including such well known names as Stapp,[26] Bohm,[27] and Capra,[28] offer similar, if not identical, views of the universe. While they may differ slightly in the details they all agree that, as far as they can determine, a monist conception of the universe is empirically undeniable. It is only fair to mention, too, that not all in the community of physicist share these ideas. Others are attempting to solve the problems based on dualistic or pluralistic notions of reality. To date, however, monistic theories have consistently provided the most coherent systems of thought, and an examination of less successful theories in quantum physics is beyond the scope of this essay. To that we can add that monism deserves a great deal of consideration if we recognize, at the same time, that this world view is also propounded by most mystics, throughout the ages, as their actual experience of Reality. Here we are seeing science and religion (more specifically, mysticism) agreeing on a fundamental view of the universe. One would think that this in itself would be cause for celebration.
In conclusion, I have shown how many of the central figures in the Sufi tradition have centered on the concept of a monistic universe. For this, many have paid a dear price; including, at times, their lives. Further, I have shown that this view of a monistic universe is, likewise, becoming popular within the scientific community. Based on recent experiments, science is now able to definitively claim that matter and the physical world are merely a secondary feature of the universe. The true foundation, many believe, lie in an underlying omniscient field of consciousness which animates, and is responsible for, the formation of the material world. This underlying field - or as it has been tentatively described by some, 'God' - can be accessed if perhaps individuals can transcend their own illusory sense of separate self. This notion is completely in line with the teachings of the great Sufi masters and one is hard pressed to see where the conclusions of science end and Sufism begin. This transcendent experience, attested to by Sufis, is perhaps that great mystical experience described as the 'Union with God.' That science is potentially on the verge of discovering aspects of this reality marks a great time for humanity. Now, more than ever, it is perhaps incumbent upon mystics and scientists alike to join hands in the search to understand our place in the universe.
End
1 It is interesting to note the similarity between the Sufi mystical term fana, meaning 'annihilation,' and the Buddhist mystical term nirvana, also meaning 'annihilation.'
2 R. C. Zaehner Hindu and Muslim Mysticism. (Rockport: Oneworld Publications, 1994). p. 11-12.
3 Zaehner, p. 12.
4 Frederick Mathewson Denny, An Introduction to Islam (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994) p. 232.
5 A. J. Arberry, Sufism (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1970), p. 54.
6 Zaehner, p. 14.
7 Denny, p. 237.
8 Denny, p. 240.
9 Idries Shah, The Way of the Sufi (London: Penguin Books, 1968), p. 56-57.
10 Denney, p. 263.
11 S.A.Q. Husaini, The Pantheistic Monism of Ibn Al-Arabi (Lahore: Ashraf Press, 1970), p. viii.
12 Husaini, p. viii.
13 Annemarie Schimmel, Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), p. 59-62.
14 Muhyiddin Ibn Al-Arabi, The Seals Of Wisdom: From The Fusus Al-Hakim ed. Raghavan Iyer (London: Concord Grove Press, 1983), p. 47.
15 Husaini, p. 177.
16 Husaini, p. 178-9.
17 Reynold A. Nicholson, Rumi: Poet and Mystic (1207-1273: Selections from His Writings) (London: Allen & Unwin, 1950), p. 184.
18 David Z. Albert, Quantum Mechanics and Experience (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992), p. 59.
19 Amit Goswami, The Self-Aware Universe: How Consciousness Creates the Material World (New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc., 1993), p. 117 - 21.
20 Goswami, p. 61.
21 Nick Herbert, Elemental Mind: Human Consciousness and the New Physics (New York: Penguin Books, 1993), p. 155-6.
22 The issue here is not whether the collapse occurs from a quantum state to a 'physical property' state. That has already been empirically proven. The difficulty presently concerning quantum physicists is one of determining exactly when the collapse actually occurs. For instance, does the collapse occur as the 'experiment' begins or does it occur when the final measured property of the experiment is registered as a 'mental state' in the observer? Answers to these questions, if they can even be answered, would bring us much closer to defining exactly the causal role that consciousness plays.
23 Betsy Whitfill, Interview with Dr. Larry Dossey Share International <http://www.simedia.org/new/bwdossey.html>. This statement was part of a conversation discussing the effects of prayer and positive thoughts in healing the body. Medical science has now had to admit, if only reluctantly, that the mind (i.e., consciousness) plays a fundamental role in our quality of physical health.
24 Goswami, Self-Aware, pp. 2.
25 Goswami, p. 11.
26 Henry P. Stapp, Mind, Matter, and Quantum Physics (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1993). Henry Stapp provides a powerful model to explain how the quantum field interacts with the brain of the individual. He develops his model by fusing concepts from Heisenberg and William James.
27 David Bohm, Wholeness and the Implicate Order (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980). Bohm is one of the most famous and well-known quantum physicist of the 20th century. His conversations with others, such as J. Krishnamurti, illustrate his convictions toward the ideas expressed in this essay.
28 Fritjof Capra, The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism (London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1982). Fritjof Capra was one of the first pioneers to do a detailed comparison of the similarities between notions in quantum physics and the claims of eastern mysticism. He holds thoroughly monist conclusions.
Works Cited
Al-Arabi, Muhyiddin Ibn. The Seals Of Wisdom: From The Fusus Al-Hakim ed. Raghavan Iyer. London: Concord Grove Press, 1983.
Albert, David Z. Quantum Mechanics and Experience Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992.
Arberry, A. J. Sufism New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1970.
Bohm, David Wholeness and the Implicate Order London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1980.
Capra, Fritjof The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism London: HarperCollins Publishers, 1982.
Denny, Frederick Mathewson. An Introduction to Islam New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1994.
Goswami, Amit. The Self-Aware Universe: How Consciousness Creates the Material World New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc., 1993.
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Husaini, S.A.Q. The Pantheistic Monism of Ibn Al-Arabi Lahore: Ashraf Press, 1970.
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Schimmel, Annemarie. Mystical Dimensions of Islam Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975.
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Zaehner, R. C. Hindu and Muslim Mysticism. Rockport: Oneworld Publications, 1994.